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Notices; Optimized for the MS Edge
Modified: August 03,
2017
(cf. Mandaville, S.M. 2002)
![[Img-dragon icon]](../VIEW/ICON/dragon.gif){kind=icon}
... a case history at the Maynard
Lake beach, Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, CanadaThis review concludes that there is no easy, low-cost method for differentiating between human and non-human sources of bacterial contamination at the present time. Quantifying the contribution from different sources is as yet not possible.
The North American research into various identification methodologies is ongoing and it is difficult at the present time to definitively recommend a single one as the most preferable which could be used in perpetuity. Not all methods are being reviewed in this report.
A selection of representative published papers in peer reviewed journals and/or at scientific conferences are herewith included in Section 5: Appendices.
A "toolbox" approach seems warranted where the method chosen depends on the types of fecal sources that one has to deal with (or the questions one needs answered). Obtaining similar results with different BST methods also improves the chances that the source identifications are correct. (Hagedorn, 2002)
The field of bacterial source tracking (BST) continues to evolve rapidly, and researchers see promising developments emerging.
![[Img-Prof. Kate Field PhD]](PIC/field2.jpg)
One of the challenges is to
identify a low-cost, simple methodology. Based on literature survey and
consultations, the fecal Bacteroides-Prevotella
detection methodology of Prof. Katherine Field PhD of the Dept. of
Microbiology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon appears to be
the most economic as well as reliable. Prof. Field’s methodology
generally does not require samples of feces of common sources like
humans, dogs, ducks, cows. Only the water sample filters are needed for
her analyses.
Further, the New York State Department of Health (cf. Email from Prof. Ellen Braun-Howland PhD, June 2001) is in preference of the aforementioned methodology of Prof. Katherine Field. The New York State chose not to go with ribotyping (e.g., Washington State) or antibiotic resistance genes since both those methods require the establishment of large libraries of organisms before one can get any meaningful results. They found it costly and time-intensive.
And based on a timely state-of-the-art Microbiological Source Tracking Workshop organized by the Southern California Coastal Water Research Project Authority (SCCWRP, 2002) in cooperation with several Government stakeholders, Scientist, John Griffith also prefers Prof. Kate Field’s Bacteriodes source ID (pers. comm. February, 25, 2002).
Notwithstanding, there is considerable support for genetic fingerprinting involving isolates of pure cultures of E. coli which is the preferred methodology of the Washington State Department of Ecology among numerous other agencies. Ribotyping is a molecular method first applied to bacterial source detection 11 years ago. Based on discussions with Prof. Mansour Samadpour, I find it quite costly and intensive both in the field as well as in the laboratory work. Dr. Samadpour of the University of Washington is a leading specialist in ribotyping and continues to apply it widely. He is reputed to have the largest library of DNA signatures in North America and has consulted with some regulatory agencies in British Columbia as well).
There was a state-of-the-art Microbiological Source Tracking Workshop organized by the Southern California Coastal Water Research Project Authority (SCCWRP, 2002) in cooperation with the US Environmental Protection Agency, State Water Quality Control Board, and the National Water Research Institute during February 5-7, 2002.
![[Img-pathogenic_enteric_bacteria_1.gif]](../DNA/PIC/pathogenic_enteric_bacteria_1.gif)
Fecal contamination of aquatic environments afflicts many regions and
may carry risks to human health. For example, human fecal pollution may
spread dangerous bacterial and viral pathogens, such as hepatitis,
while other human pathogens such as Cryptosporidium parvum, Giardia
lamblia, Salmonella spp., and E. coli O157:H7
are associated with animal fecal pollution.
Further, contamination of coastal and inland waters by fecal bacteria results in beach closures that suspend recreation and strike a blow to the economies of beach communities.
Often the source of fecal contamination in water cannot be determined. For example, non-point sources such as failing septic systems, overloads at sewage treatment facilities, overflows from sanitary sewage pumping stations, or flows from sewage pipe breaks may all be candidates. In addition, the contribution of bacterial pollution "stored" in sediments and re-suspended during storm events is unknown. In order to adequately assess human health risks and develop watershed management plans, it is necessary to know the sources of fecal contamination.
cf. DNA Fingerprinting Aids Investigation — Fecal Coliform Sources Traced to Unlikely Suspects. Issue Number: 48, Chapter Name: Technical Notes. Date: 04/97
Tracking the source of fecal coliform contamination may not sound as exciting as reading a good mystery. But recent research into fecal coliform pollution in the southern Chesapeake Bay had more than enough suspense to qualify as a mystery, including several suspects and high tech investigative methods. By systematically tracking clues in the field and using DNA fingerprinting in the lab, researchers at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University appear to have cracked the case.
According to George M. Simmons Jr., Alumni Distinguished Professor at Virginia Tech, tracking the source of fecal coliform contamination was actually a spinoff of other research he was conducting on Virginia's Eastern Shore. It started when Roger Buyrn, a local land owner and clam grower, approached him with the case. Buyrn faced losing his clam business because of contaminated harvest areas in a tidal creek. Harvest area closures can have serious negative impacts on the local economy, and they are becoming commonplace. According to the Division of Shellfish Sanitation in Richmond, Virginia, the number of acres condemned over the last two decades for shellfish harvest in Virginia has increased from 62,272 acres in 1970, to 98,826 acres in 1994. Hoping to avoid condemnation of his own harvest area, Buyrn opened up his land to Simmons and his team of student investigators.
The researchers tracked fecal coliform levels in the field by sampling at land/water interfaces and across marshes or up creeks. Simmons points out that rigorous sampling in creek beds, marshes, and each tiny rivulet that drained to them was the major tool for tracing the fecal coliform signals. Once the general source areas were identified, the study group monitored them extensively.
All along, Simmons and his colleagues believed that the sources would be anthropogenic in nature. ‘It took me about a year to come to grips with the fact that the fecal coliform were not coming from a leaky septic tank or other effluent,’ said Simmons. ‘It got to the point where I was climbing trees to see if I could see any potential sources (i.e., houses), but there weren't any. We all were pretty baffled.’
Identifying unknown sources was a challenging endeavor. Some E. Coli strains are specific to certain animal species; others may contain several different strains. ‘A total of 88 E. Coli strains from unknown sources were fingerprinted, and of those 88 strains, 58 of them resulted in some degree of [species] identification using the dichotomous key of E. Coli strains from known sources.’ In addition, 22 of the strains closely matched known strains in the existing library. Simmons noted that only eight of the 88 unknown samples collected from the study area could have come from a human source. Comparing E.coli from the samples against the fingerprints of known strains in the DNA library, Simmons traced the sources to deer and raccoon.
There are three important requirements of an indicator. It should be native to the intestinal tract, enter the water with fecal discharge, and be found in the presence of other enteric pathogens. The indicator should normally survive longer than their disease-producing companions. They should be easy to isolate and identify.
Since the early work of Escherich, who identified Bacillus coli (now Escherichia coli) as a dominant bacterium in feces, considerable effort has been expended to identify the dominant bacteria associated with the gastrointestinal tracts of humans and warm-blooded animals.
Enterococci are a sub-group of the fecal streptococcus group. This group consists of a number of species of Streptococci, S. faecalis, S. faecium, S. gallinarum, and S. avium. The enterococci portion of the fecal streptococcus group is a valuable bacterial indicator for determining the extent of fecal contamination in surface waters. Water quality guidelines based on enterococcal density have been proposed for recreational waters.
*Median values from 10 animals
Animal
Escherichia coli
Clostridium perfringens
Streptococci
Bacteroides
Lactobacilli
Cattle
4.3
2.3
5.3
0
2.4
Sheep
6.5
4.3
6.1
0
3.9
Horses
4.1
0
6.8
0
7.0
Pigs
6.5
3.6
6.4
5.7
8.4
Chickens
6.6
2.4
7.5
0
8.5
Rabbits
2.7
0
4.3
8.6
0
Dogs
7.5
8.4
7.6
8.7
4.6
Cats
7.6
7.4
8.3
8.9
8.8
Mice
6.8
0
7.9
8.9
9.1
Humans
6.7
3.2
5.2
9.7
8.8
Bacterium
Range of Incidence
Bacteroides fragilis
100
Bacteroides melaninogenicus
100
Bacteroides oralis
100
Lactobacillus
20-60
Clostridium perfringens
25-35
Clostridium septicum
5-25
Clostridium tetani
1-35
Bifidobacterium bifidum
30-70
Staphylococcus aureus
30-50
Enterococcus faecalis
100
Escherichia coli
100
Salmonella enteritidis
3-7
Salmonella typhi
0.00001
Klebsiella sp.
40-80
Enterobacter sp.
40-80
Proteus mirabilis
5-55
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
3-11
Peptostreptococcus sp.
common
Peptococcus sp.
moderate
Methanogens (Archaea)
common
The ratio of fecal coliform (FC) to fecal streptococci (FS) concentrations has been used to try to differentiate human from non-human sources of fecal contamination. A ratio of four or greater is considered human fecal contamination, a ratio of less than 0.7 suggests non-human sources. The value of this ratio has been questioned because of variable survival rates of fecal streptococcus group species. Streptococcus bovis and S. equinus die off rapidly once exposed to aquatic environments, whereas S. faecalis and S. faecium tend to survive longer.
The ratio is also affected by the methods for enumerating fecal streptococci. For these reasons, Standard Methods (Eaton et al., 1995) and the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME, 1993), among other government agencies, do not any longer recommend FC:FS ratios as a method for differentiating between human and non-human sources of fecal contamination.
Peruse also the email from the Ontario Ministry of the Environment
(2001).
Both molecular (genotype) and biochemical (phenotype) BST methods are under development. DNA fingerprinting has received the greatest publicity, but to date there are at least ten or so different methods described in the scientific literature that show potential. However, BST development is so new that no extensive research comparing BST methods or identifying their relative strengths and weaknesses has yet been completed. Such comparison research has only recently been started, and results should become available over the next few years. At this point it seems reasonable to assume that some combination of BST methods will be needed to provide the most accurate and reliable source identification answers. It is doubtful that any one BST method will emerge as the "best" method for all situations.
Molecular methods may offer the most precise identification of specific types of sources, but are limited by high per-isolate costs, detailed and time-consuming procedures, and are not yet suitable for assaying large numbers of samples in a reasonable time frame. Biochemical methods may or may not be as precise, but are simpler, quicker, less costly, and allow large numbers of samples to be assayed in a short period of time. Perhaps the best approach at this point is to use a biochemical method to determine sources on large numbers of fecal bacterial isolates, and then confirm (validate) both the method and the results by assaying some smaller subset of isolates with a molecular procedure.
BST methods have been used primarily with E. coli and the fecal streps, and to a lesser degree with bifidobacteria, Bacteroides-Prevotella, and coliphages. While regulatory agencies often prefer E. coli because that is the most widely used indicator standard, there are good reasons to consider other fecal organisms, depending on the situation. For example, E. coli is difficult to detect in composted poultry litters or in high quality biosolids, while the fecal streps are very numerous in both materials.
Also, there is increasing evidence of regrowth of E. coli and fecal streps in tropical and/or subtropical waters and sediments. Under these conditions, other organisms such as the bifidobacteria, Bacteroides-Prevotella, or coliphages may be better organisms for source tracking and perhaps also as better indicators of fecal pollution.
With all BST methodologies (except chemical) it is necessary to first build a library or database of isolates taken from known sources, e.g., human, cow, deer, etc. The size of the library will be partly determined by the number of potential major sources of fecal pollution in the target area. Nobody knows at this point how large a library has to be or how similar libraries from different geographical areas may be. Publications to date indicate that at least a few hundred isolates from each major known source will be needed. Once the known source library has been developed, and correct source identifications are sufficiently high for the desired purpose, then the second step can be taken of comparing fecal isolates of unknown origin against the library to obtain source identification. It is also necessary to regularly recheck the database with known source isolates to be sure that correct source identification remains high. (Hagedorn, 2002)
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